Coral Reef Ecosystem Services Research Articles

Awareness and perceptions of coral reef ecosystem use and management in ‘pseudo community’ and government-managed marine protected areas in Kwale county, Kenya

Both local ‘pseudo community’ and government-managed Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are fundamental tools in the protection of coral reef ecosystems from human-driven threats globally. Inclusive decision-making between the local community and the government in co-management is vital to the success of MPAs. Consequently, understanding community awareness and perception of the coral reef ecosystem is an essential aspect for transformative change in the sustainable use of coral reef ecosystem services. This study aimed to assess and compare the community's awareness and perceptions of coral reef ecosystem benefits in the face of different management options between Diani Chale and Kisite-Mpunguti MPAs in south coast Kenya. We collected qualitative and quantitative data through 16 focus group discussions (n = 147) and household surveys (n = 412 in Diani Chale and n = 413 in Kisite-Mpunguti MPAs) on communities living in villages within 5 kilometers of the shoreline of the selected MPAs. The findings revealed that 77.6% (640/825) of the respondents were aware of coral reef ecosystems in their area. There was a higher awareness of coral reefs among respondents in government-managed Kisite-Mpunguti MPA (84.5%, 349/413) compared to pseudo-community-managed Diani Chale MPA (70.6%, 291/412). A higher proportion of respondents in Kisite-Mpunguti relied on coral reef resources for their livelihoods (p < 0.01). Moreover, a significantly higher percentage of respondents from Kisite-Mpunguti agreed or strongly agreed that local people derive economic benefits from the establishment of MPAs compared to Diani Chale (67.6% versus 52.2%, p < 0.001). Furthermore, more respondents from Kisite-Mpunguti expressed positive support for the establishment of more government-managed MPAs (55.69% versus 32%), and Locally Managed Marine Areas (53.9% versus 38.86%). Based on these findings, inclusive support by local communities towards coral reef conservation is recommended to increase their participation in positive environmental behaviors in Kenya and other countries in the Western Indian Ocean region. Additionally, improved political goodwill is required to support the creation of more and larger areas under marine protection, especially in the Diani Chale area.

A systematic review of coral reef, mangrove, and seagrass ecosystem services in Pacific Small Island Developing States

Mettant en évidence les multiples contributions des écosystèmes au bien-être humain, l'évaluation des services écosystémiques (SE) est reconnue comme un outil pertinent pour soutenir la protection et la gestion durable de la nature. Après examen de la littérature sur les SE de coraux, mangroves et herbiers dans les petits États insulaires en développement du Pacifique, pays hautement vulnérables aux changements océaniques, nos résultats mettent en évidence des lacunes géographiques et méthodologiques, et soulignent la nécessité d'utiliser des indicateurs non monétaires dans les évaluations de SE, et de prendre davantage en compte la littérature grise dans l'analyse des SE.

The success of coral Acropora sp. transplantation with various methods in Raja Ampat Regency, Indonesia

Climate change and anthropogenic pressures have caused massive damage and degradation of coral reef ecosystem services in almost all countries in the Indian Ocean. The status of coral reefs at 1,067 sites in Indonesia is included in the poor category with 386 sites (36.18%) and the reefs in the moderate category with 366 sites (34.3%). The condition, area, and function of this coral reef ecosystem can be restored through rehabilitation activities using the transplant method. This study aimed to determine the success of coral Acropora sp transplantation in two different methods in Raja Ampat Regency, i.e., Yensawai Village. The research was conducted from September to December 2021 using PVC and iron racks. The increase in length of coral fragments was measured using a caliper and survival was calculated for the number of coral fragments at the end of the study. The results showed that coral fragments with PVC racks had a growth rate of 0.67±0.54 mm/day and a survival rate of 81.25%, while those on iron racks had a growth rate of 0.64±0,66 mm/day and a survival rate of 90%. Both methods showed a high coral survival rate (>80%). T-test statistical analysis revealed no apparent variance between the two approaches (p= 0.85). Our findings suggest that both methods are suitable for use in Yensawai Village.

Alacranes reef: A refuge for structurally complex coral species from increasing stressors

Coral reefs worldwide are being exposed to an interconnected myriad of anthropogenic stressors degrading their structure and functions. Therefore, global coral cover and coral reef ecosystem services have declined by half since the 1950s. Yet, remote reefs represent a time capsule to study ecological processes on minimally disturbed reefs, and these findings can steer management decisions and actions to enhance resilience. Combining in situ and satellite-derived data from the remote Alacranes Reef system located in the Gulf of Mexico, we evaluated benthic cover data and coral structural complexity together with physical drivers and direct coral stressors to better understand the current reef conditions of this remote system. Our main results show that 57% of the reef sites have >10% hard coral cover and are dominated by structurally complex species. Moreover, sites with >20% coral cover were associated with significantly shallower depths, smaller wave significant height, fewer bleaching impacts, as well as fewer macroalgae and cyanobacteria cover. Despite cumulative stressors impacting the Alacranes reef system, coral species assemblages and conditions are still driven by natural physical gradients, and the system hosts potential refuges for structurally complex species in the wider Caribbean. However, not all these refuges are fully protected, and strategic local management is key to maintaining and enhancing coral resilience in the context of increasing global stressors.

The potential for coral reef restoration to mitigate coastal flooding as sea levels rise

The ability of reefs to protect coastlines from storm-driven flooding hinges on their capacity to keep pace with sea-level rise. Here, we show how and whether coral restoration could achieve the often-cited goal of reversing the impacts of coral-reef degradation to preserve this essential function. We combined coral-growth measurements and carbonate-budget assessments of reef-accretion potential at Buck Island Reef, U.S. Virgin Islands, with hydrodynamic modeling to quantify future coastal flooding under various coral-restoration, sea-level rise, and storm scenarios. Our results provide guidance on how restoration of Acropora palmata, if successful, could mitigate the most extreme impacts of coastal flooding by reversing projected trajectories of reef erosion and allowing reefs to keep pace with the ~0.5 m of sea-level rise expected by 2100 with moderate carbon-emissions reductions. This highlights the potential long-term benefits of pursuing coral-reef restoration alongside climate-change mitigation to support the persistence of essential coral-reef ecosystem services.

Assessment of Stakeholder's Perceptions of the Value of Coral Reef Ecosystem Services: The Case of Gili Matra Marine Tourism Park.

Ecosystem services is a concept broadly applicable to describe environmental interrelations with human activities. It serves as a practical instrument for assessing the success of resource management in natural reserves, with the goals of maximising conservation effort and achieving sustainable use. The Gili Matra Marine Tourism Park (GMMTP) has been extensively researched as a marine protected area centred on anthropocentric activities of marine-based tourism. However, there still a lack of research to address the full scope of ecosystem services derived from the coral reef ecosystem. From an ecosystem services viewpoint, the study's objectives were to define the services obtained from the GMMTP's coral reef ecosystem, relevant stakeholders, and how their utilisation activities were posed as drivers of changes that reflect the flow of services and the possible implications of these. Marine tourism, capture fisheries, and land-based activities were identified as services impacting upon the regulating and supporting services, with the resultant compounding externalities potentially degrading the services' utilisation value. Although there have been certain changes in community behaviour that may reduce the intensity of the impacts, the present prediction of service flow still confirms the previous statement. The results provided insight into current resources management implications on the state of ecosystem services. Overall, failing to recognise the causes that drives the interaction of these ecosystem services will increase the risk of incurring unexpected trade-offs, restricting the potential for resources' synergies, and eventually causing drastic and irreversible changes in the provision of coral reef ecosystem services in the GMMTP.

Assessment of coral-reef ecosystem services in West Buleleng Conservation Zone, Bali, Indonesia

Assessment of coral-reef ecosystem services in West Buleleng Conservation Zone, Bali, Indonesia

Norm power of scuba diving and snorkeling behaviors in the Florida Keys

The sustainability of recreation and tourism in coral reefs depends on ecological health and environmentally responsible behaviors in those ecosystems, which are partly guided by social norms. The power of social norms lies in the behavioral obligations imposed by a group, and in the informal sanctions enforced by others or felt by oneself when conforming to or violating those obligations. This study examined the norm power of 12 coral reef behaviors of non-resident SCUBA divers and snorkelers in the Florida Keys. In a mail questionnaire, respondents rated how obligated they were to do each of the 12 behaviors when diving or snorkeling on a coral reef, and how embarrassed (informal sanction) they would feel if they were seen violating each of those behaviors. Overall, the results showed that divers and snorkelers were obligated to do all 12 types of behaviors, but the amount of norm power was distinguished by the level of embarrassment varying between the two groups. High norm power values suggest that SCUBA divers and snorkelers self-regulate and enforce desirable behaviors within their activity groups. Relatively low norm power behaviors should be monitored and may need targeted communication strategies or management interventions to help instill a sense of obligation and sanction. These findings have important implications for monitoring behavioral compliance, promoting ocean stewardship, and establishing management policies to sustain coral reef ecosystem services.

Global decline in capacity of coral reefs to provide ecosystem services

•Coral reef habitat, biodiversity, fisheries, effort, and food-web impacts are evaluated•Global coverage of living coral has declined by half since the 1950s•Catch of coral reef associate fishes per unit effort has decreased by 60% since 1950•Coral reefs’ capacity to provide ecosystem services has declined by half since the 1950s Coral reef ecosystems are important for tropical and subtropical coastal communities, small-island developing states, and Indigenous peoples because they provide ecosystem services such as food provision, livelihood opportunities, carbon sequestration, and protection from storms. We have derived global estimates of key ecosystem services provided by coral reefs: catches of coral-reef-associated fishes, abundance of coral-reef-associated fishes, coral-reef-associated biodiversity, and consumption of coral-reef-associated fishes by Indigenous peoples. Our study indicates that the capacity of coral reefs to provide ecosystem services that are relied on by millions of people worldwide has declined by half since the 1950s. Achieving climate-change-emissions targets and reducing local impacts can reduce stress on coral reefs, allowing them and the ecosystem services that they provide to persist. Coral reefs worldwide are facing impacts from climate change, overfishing, habitat destruction, and pollution. The cumulative effect of these impacts on global capacity of coral reefs to provide ecosystem services is unknown. Here, we evaluate global changes in extent of coral reef habitat, coral reef fishery catches and effort, Indigenous consumption of coral reef fishes, and coral-reef-associated biodiversity. Global coverage of living coral has declined by half since the 1950s. Catches of coral-reef-associated fishes peaked in 2002 and are in decline despite increasing fishing effort, and catch-per-unit effort has decreased by 60% since 1950. At least 63% of coral-reef-associated biodiversity has declined with loss of coral extent. With projected continued degradation of coral reefs and associated loss of biodiversity and fisheries catches, the well-being and sustainable coastal development of human communities that depend on coral reef ecosystem services are threatened. Coral reefs worldwide are facing impacts from climate change, overfishing, habitat destruction, and pollution. The cumulative effect of these impacts on global capacity of coral reefs to provide ecosystem services is unknown. Here, we evaluate global changes in extent of coral reef habitat, coral reef fishery catches and effort, Indigenous consumption of coral reef fishes, and coral-reef-associated biodiversity. Global coverage of living coral has declined by half since the 1950s. Catches of coral-reef-associated fishes peaked in 2002 and are in decline despite increasing fishing effort, and catch-per-unit effort has decreased by 60% since 1950. At least 63% of coral-reef-associated biodiversity has declined with loss of coral extent. With projected continued degradation of coral reefs and associated loss of biodiversity and fisheries catches, the well-being and sustainable coastal development of human communities that depend on coral reef ecosystem services are threatened. Coral reefs are biodiversity hotspots that provide millions of people with ecosystem services such as food provision, livelihood opportunities, carbon sequestration, and buffering against extreme climate events.3Cinner J.E. Huchery C. MacNeil M.A. Graham N.A.J. McClanahan T.R. Maina J. Maire E. Kittinger J.N. Hicks C.C. Mora C. et al.Bright spots among the world’s coral reefs.Nature. 2016; 535: 416-419Crossref PubMed Scopus (280) Google Scholar, 4Hicks C.C. Cohen P.J. Graham N.A.J. Nash K.L. 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Okem, J. Petzold, B. Rama, and N.M. Weyer, eds. (IPCC).Google Scholar There are an estimated 6 million coral reef fishers worldwide,24Teh L.S.L. Teh L.C.L. Sumaila U.R. A Global Estimate of the Number of Coral Reef Fishers.PLoS ONE. 2013; 8: e65397Crossref PubMed Scopus (125) Google Scholar and coral reef fisheries are valued at USD 6 billion.25Reefs at Risk Revisited Report | World Resources Institute https://www.wri.org/research/reefs-risk-revisited.Google Scholar Coastal Indigenous peoples have essential cultural relationships with coral reef ecosystems, and their consumption of seafood is 15 times higher than that of non-Indigenous populations.2Cisneros-Montemayor A.M. Pauly D. Weatherdon L.V. Ota Y. A Global Estimate of Seafood Consumption by Coastal Indigenous Peoples.PLoS ONE. 2016; 11: e0166681Crossref PubMed Scopus (98) Google Scholar Fish is an important source of nutrition for people in small-island developing states (SIDSs),26Wabnitz C.C.C. Cisneros-Montemayor A.M. Hanich Q. Ota Y. Ecotourism, climate change and reef fish consumption in Palau: Benefits, trade-offs and adaptation strategies.Mar. Policy. 2018; 88: 323-332Crossref Scopus (38) Google Scholar comprising 50%–90% of dietary animal protein in Pacific Island countries and territories,27Bell J.D. Kronen M. Vunisea A. Nash W.J. Keeble G. Demmke A. Pontifex S. Andréfouët S. Planning the use of fish for food security in the Pacific.Mar. Policy. 2009; 33: 64-76Crossref Scopus (315) Google Scholar 50% in west Africa,4Hicks C.C. Cohen P.J. Graham N.A.J. Nash K.L. Allison E.H. D’Lima C. Mills D.J. Roscher M. Thilsted S.H. Thorne-Lyman A.L. MacNeil M.A. Harnessing global fisheries to tackle micronutrient deficiencies.Nature. 2019; 574: 95-98Crossref PubMed Scopus (191) Google Scholar,28The scourge of “hidden hunger”: global dimensions of micronutrient deficiencies https://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=XF2004414753.Google Scholar and 37% in southeast Asia.22Lam V.W.Y. Allison E.H. 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In recent studies, this has included global analyses of Indigenous-led initiatives to support sovereignty and nature conservation in traditional territories30Garnett S.T. Burgess N.D. Fa J.E. Fernández-Llamazares Á. Molnár Z. Robinson C.J. Watson J.E.M. Zander K.K. Austin B. Brondizio E.S. et al.A spatial overview of the global importance of Indigenous lands for conservation.Nat. Sustain. 2018; 1: 369-374Crossref Scopus (350) Google Scholar,31von der Porten S. Ota Y. Cisneros-Montemayor A. Pictou S. The Role of Indigenous Resurgence in Marine Conservation.Coast. Manage. 2019; 47: 527-547Crossref Scopus (10) Google Scholar and a wider recognition of the foundational efforts of SIDSs to redefine sustainable development approaches under a blue economy.20Cisneros-Montemayor A.M. Moreno-Báez M. Reygondeau G. Cheung W.W.L. Crosman K.M. González-Espinosa P.C. Lam V.W.Y. Oyinlola M.A. Singh G.G. 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Chang. 2015; 5: 375-379Crossref Scopus (82) Google Scholar Local drivers like pollution and overfishing are thought to contribute to coral loss in some locations;39MacNeil M.A. Mellin C. Matthews S. Wolff N.H. McClanahan T.R. Devlin M. Drovandi C. Mengersen K. Graham N.A.J. Water quality mediates resilience on the Great Barrier Reef.Nat. Ecol. Evol. 2019; 3: 620-627Crossref PubMed Scopus (74) Google Scholar,40Donovan M.K. Burkepile D.E. Kratochwill C. Shlesinger T. Sully S. Oliver T.A. Hodgson G. Freiwald J. van Woesik R. Local conditions magnify coral loss after marine heatwaves.Science. 2021; 372: 977-980Crossref PubMed Scopus (36) Google Scholar however, these effects have been difficult to assess, measure, and quantify.41Darling E.S. McClanahan T.R. Maina J. Gurney G.G. Graham N.A.J. Januchowski-Hartley F. Cinner J.E. Mora C. Hicks C.C. Maire E. et al.Social-environmental drivers inform strategic management of coral reefs in the Anthropocene.Nat. Ecol. 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A Global Estimate of Seafood Consumption by Coastal Indigenous Peoples.PLoS ONE. 2016; 11: e0166681Crossref PubMed Scopus (98) Google Scholar,26Wabnitz C.C.C. Cisneros-Montemayor A.M. Hanich Q. Ota Y. Ecotourism, climate change and reef fish consumption in Palau: Benefits, trade-offs and adaptation strategies.Mar. Policy. 2018; 88: 323-332Crossref Scopus (38) Google Scholar Here, we provide a global analysis of trends in living coral cover, associated fishery catches and effort, balance of fishing across the food web, coral-reef-associated biodiversity, and seafood consumption by coastal Indigenous peoples. We combined datasets from coral reef surveys, estimated coral-reef-associated biodiversity, fishery catches and effort, fishery impacts on food-web structure, and Indigenous consumption of coral-reef-associated fish. Our analysis indicates that the capacity of coral reefs to provide ecosystem services has declined by about half globally. This study speaks to the importance of how we manage coral reefs not only at regional scales but also at the global scale and the livelihoods of communities that rely on them. Overall, historical coral coverage was estimated to range from 58% to 70% in coral reef systems worldwide.8Eddy T.D. Cheung W.W.L. Bruno J.F. Historical baselines of coral cover on tropical reefs as estimated by expert opinion.PeerJ. 2018; 6: e4308Crossref PubMed Scopus (13) Google Scholar There has been approximately a 50% decline in coral reef cover globally from 1957–2007 (Figure 1A). There were only a few observations in the early part of the time series, which originated from the western Indian Ocean, indicating high uncertainty around what the average coral cover was during the mid-20th century. The effects of climate change worldwide started prior to this period, suggesting that the historical baseline could have been higher (Figures S1 and S2). The average decadal rate of loss in coral coverage during the study period ranged from 4.7% to 6.8% (Figure 1A). Most regions had relatively low sampling effort, except for countries in the western central Atlantic and the western central Pacific (Figure S1). Most countries showed declines in coral cover, although some countries in the Caribbean (Barbados, Cuba, Panama) and the western Pacific (Japan, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand) showed increases based on available survey data (Figure 1B). Countries with the greatest coral-reef-associated biodiversity were typically found in the Pacific, although there was no clear separation among ocean basins (Figure 2A). We examined the species-area relationship43Drakare S. Lennon J.J. Hillebrand H. The imprint of the geographical, evolutionary and ecological context on species-area relationships.Ecol. Lett. 2006; 9: 215-227Crossref PubMed Scopus (404) Google Scholar for coral-reef-associated organisms by the main taxonomic groups (macroalgae, macroinvertebrates, and fish). Regression (log-log linear) between the estimated area of coral and total species richness among exclusive economic zones (EEZs) (n = 94) showed a positive relationship with a slope of 0.30 (p = 4.98e-07) and an intercept of 1.58 (p = 1.04e-08), with a Spearman coefficient of 0.63 (Figure 2B). Macroinvertebrates had a slope of 0.40, an intercept of 0.03 (p = 7.79e-06; p = 0.93, respectively), and a Spearman coefficient of 0.52. Fish had a slope of 0.30, an intercept of 0.70 (p = 2.88e-06; p = 0.01, respectively), and a Spearman coefficient of 0.52. Mammals had a slope of 0.09, an intercept of 0.95 (p = 0.01; p = 5.51e-09), and a Spearman coefficient of 0.28. We also subset EEZs that had a latitudinal centroid of coral reef area within the tropics and found that the species-area relationship increased for all groups, with a Spearman coefficient of 0.74. Global catches of coral-reef-associated fish steadily increased from 1950 until they peaked at approximately 2.3 million tons in 2002, representing 2.0% of global catches, after which they steadily declined and represented 2.5% of global catches in 2010 (Figures 3A, S3, and S4). Global fishing effort for coral-reef-associated species in EEZs with coral reefs increased from 1950–2010 (Figure S5), and the resulting catch-per-unit effort (CPUE) trend peaked in 1971, after which it decreased—an indication of declining coral reef fish abundance in many countries (Figure 3B). The fishing in balance (FIB) index increased through time and then leveled off, indicating increasingly unbalanced removal of higher trophic-level species (Figure 4). The countries with the highest per-capita Indigenous consumption of coral reef fish—Palau, Micronesia, and Kiribati (Figure 5)—are SIDSs. Other areas with high per-capita consumption include eastern Africa, southeast Asia, and the Bay of Bengal (Figure 5). In these and other areas, the protection and state of social-ecological systems that provide local seafood from coral reefs is particularly pertinent given broader national food-security issues. For example, Palau has established new national policies related to seafood production and tourist consumption specifically to prioritize consumption of reef fishes for local Palauans and their traditional fisheries.26Wabnitz C.C.C. Cisneros-Montemayor A.M. Hanich Q. Ota Y. Ecotourism, climate change and reef fish consumption in Palau: Benefits, trade-offs and adaptation strategies.Mar. Policy. 2018; 88: 323-332Crossref Scopus (38) Google ScholarFigure 4Global coral reef fisheries food-web impactShow full captionFIB index of coral-reef-associated fish in grid cells where coral reefs occur, weighted by EEZ area of coral reef habitat.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT)Figure 5Consumption of coral-reef-associated fish by Indigenous communities by exclusive economic zoneShow full captionIndigenous consumption data from Cisneros-Montemayor;2Cisneros-Montemayor A.M. Pauly D. Weatherdon L.V. Ota Y. A Global Estimate of Seafood Consumption by Coastal Indigenous Peoples.PLoS ONE. 2016; 11: e0166681Crossref PubMed Scopus (98) Google Scholar coral reef fish catch data from Sea Around Us.44Pauly D. Zeller D. Catch reconstructions reveal that global marine fisheries catches are higher than reported and declining.Nat. Commun. 2016; 7: 10244Crossref PubMed Scopus (639) Google ScholarView Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT) FIB index of coral-reef-associated fish in grid cells where coral reefs occur, weighted by EEZ area of coral reef habitat. Indigenous consumption data from Cisneros-Montemayor;2Cisneros-Montemayor A.M. Pauly D. Weatherdon L.V. Ota Y. A Global Estimate of Seafood Consumption by Coastal Indigenous Peoples.PLoS ONE. 2016; 11: e0166681Crossref PubMed Scopus (98) Google Scholar coral reef fish catch data from Sea Around Us.44Pauly D. Zeller D. Catch reconstructions reveal that global marine fisheries catches are higher than reported and declining.Nat. Commun. 2016; 7: 10244Crossref PubMed Scopus (639) Google Scholar Our study has aggregated regional trends of coral reefs to provide ecosystem services and demonstrated that the continuing decline of healthy coral reefs and the quality of habitat that they provide is contributing to a global decrease in provision of ecosystem services for the millions of people who rely on them. Particularly, our results highlight the erosion of biodiversity and food provision. The species-area relationship suggests a high sensitivity of species richness as a function of coral habitat. The estimated historical loss in coral habitat directly translates into loss in capacity of the remaining coral reefs to support biodiversity.11Worm B. Barbier E.B. Beaumont N. Duffy J.E. Folke C. Halpern B.S. Jackson J.B.C. Lotze H.K. Micheli F. Palumbi S.R. et al.Impacts of biodiversity loss on ocean ecosystem services.Science. 2006; 314: 787-790Crossref PubMed Scopus (2967) Google Scholar,43Drakare S. Lennon J.J. Hillebrand H. The imprint of the geographical, evolutionary and ecological context on species-area relationships.Ecol. Lett. 2006; 9: 215-227Crossref PubMed Scopus (404) Google Scholar The decline in global CPUE, an index of relative abundance of coral-reef-associated fisheries resources, suggests a loss in the production potential of many fish stocks that are important sources of food, culture, and livelihoods for coastal dependent communities. Other studies have suggested that for some coral reefs, the mean trophic level of the community (an indication of top predators in an ecosystem) can increase with fishing pressure, because exploited lower trophic-level herbivores get replaced by middle trophic-level species.45Graham N.A.J. McClanahan T.R. MacNeil M.A. Wilson S.K. Cinner J.E. Huchery C. Holmes T.H. Human Disruption of Coral Reef Trophic Structure.Curr. Biol. 2017; 27: 231-236Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (80) Google Scholar We did not report this result, which could be due to only using fishery catches and not surveying unexploited species that make up the wider coral reef community as reported in Graham et al.45Graham N.A.J. McClanahan T.R. MacNeil M.A. Wilson S.K. Cinner J.E. Huchery C. Holmes T.H. Human Disruption of Coral Reef Trophic Structure.Curr. Biol. 2017; 27: 231-236Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (80) Google Scholar Our results highlight the sensitivity of coral reef ecosystems, because of their biology, as well as the high dependence on them by human communities.23IPCC (2019). Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate, H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, M. Tignor, E. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Nicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, B. Rama, and N.M. Weyer, eds. (IPCC).Google Scholar,46IPBES (2019). Global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, E.S. Brondizio, J. Settele, S. Díaz, and H.T. Ngo, eds. (IPBES).Google Scholar Our study has also highlighted important data gaps that exist for many nations—improved monitoring and reporting for healthy coral reef coverage, associated biodiversity abundance, fisheries’ catches and effort, and seafood consumption could reduce uncertainty in future coral reef ecosystem service analyses. Essential measures that are defined and agreed targets of the SDGs, such as reducing overexploitation through effective fisheries management47Mora C. Myers R.A. Coll M. Libralato S. Pitcher T.J. Sumaila R.U. Zeller D. Watson R. Gaston K.J. Worm B. Management effectiveness of the world’s marine fisheries.PLoS Biol. 2009; 7: e1000131Crossref PubMed Scopus (292) Google Scholar (SDG 14.4, 14.7), encouraging ecosyste

Hydro-morphological characteristics provide insights into coral reef ecosystem services and disservices

Alongside ecosystem services, ecosystems also produce functions that detract from human wellbeing, termed ecosystem disservices. Decision making and policy that incorporate ecosystem services and disservices better reflect the complexity of humannature interactions, yet few studies have considered ecosystem services and disservices in combination. The coral reef landscape of Tobago was used as a case study to investigate how selected services (coastline protection, fisheries production and recreational opportunity) and disservices (support of invasive species and litter trapping) cluster in space, and are affected by the hydro-morphological characteristics of the environment. Three generalities emerged (i) ecosystem services and disservices largely trade-off with eachother, (ii) coral reefs clustered to produce unique ecosystem service bundles, whose differences were driven by fisheries production, and litter trapping and support of invasives disservices, and (iii) habitat complexity, wave exposure and water quality may serve as indicators for the provisioning of ecosystem services and disservices. Although our findings are specific to one region and spatial scale, our approach provides managers with a useful way to monitor the potential for ecosystem service and disservices and support decision making.

Evaluating coral reef ecosystem services outcomes from climate change adaptation strategies using integrative system dynamics

Coral reef ecosystems provide a broad spectrum of essential ecological, economic and cultural services for Small Island Developing State (SIDS) communities. However, coral reef communities are increasingly threatened by the adverse impacts of human activities at both global and local scales. This study aims to develop an integrated dynamic assessment framework to evaluate coral reef conditions under different adaptation and climate change scenarios, and their consequential economic impacts in the small island community of Port Resolution on Tanna Island in Vanuatu. Our assessment framework follows a sequential multilayered modelling approach that uses System Dynamics (SD) coupled with Bayesian Network (BN) modelling to deal with the complexity and dynamicity of socioeconomic and environmental systems, and impacts from trans-discipline variables. The BN incorporated existing data and expert knowledge to project the future conditions of coral reefs under different scenario settings, and to parametrise and quantify the SD model where the existing data and information was insufficient. The SD was then used to simulate the dynamic relationship between coral reef condition and the economic benefits derived from its ecosystem services under different climate change (i.e. RCPs) and management scenarios through to 2070. Our findings show that sustainable community-based conservation management strategies are key to preserving the flow of coral reef ecosystem services under RCP 2.6 and 6.0. Importantly, we demonstrate that the implementation of an integrated portfolio of management strategies better protects ecosystem services provided by coral reefs and maximises the total economic benefits achieved over the long-term despite a temporary and short-term economic loss due to high initial capital investments and income reduction due to fishing and tourism restrictions.

Subregional variation in cover and diversity of hard coral (Scleractinia) in the Western Province, Solomon Islands following an unprecedented global bleaching event.

Coral reefs are critically important marine ecosystems that are threatened worldwide by cumulative impacts of global climate change and local stressors. The Solomon Islands comprise the southwestern boundary of the Coral Triangle, the global center of coral diversity located in the Indo-Pacific, and represent a bright spot of comparatively healthy coral reef ecosystems. However, reports on the status of coral reefs in the Solomon Islands are based on monitoring conducted at 5 stations in 2003–2004 and 2006–2007, with no information on how corals in this region have responded to more recent global bleaching events and other local stressors. In this study, we compare reef condition (substrate composition) and function (taxonomic and morphological diversity of hard corals) among 15 reefs surveyed in the Western Province, Solomon Islands that span a range of local disturbance and conservation histories. Overall, we found high cover of live hard coral (15–64%) and diverse coral assemblages despite an unprecedented 36-month global bleaching event in the three years leading up to our surveys in 2018. However, there was significant variation in coral cover and diversity across the 15 reefs surveyed, suggesting that impacts of global disturbance events are moderated at smaller scales by local anthropogenic factors (fisheries extraction, land-use impacts, marine management) and environmental (hydrodynamics) conditions. Our study provides evidence that relatively healthy reefs persist at some locations in the Solomon Islands and that local stewardship practices have the potential to impact reef condition at subregional scales. As coral reef conservation becomes increasingly urgent in the face of escalating cumulative threats, prioritising sites for management efforts is critical. Based on our findings and the high dependency of Solomon Islanders on coral reef ecosystem services, we advocate that the Western Province, Solomon Islands be considered of high conservation priority.

STUDY OF CLAIMS FOR COMPENSATION OF DAMAGE TO CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEM DUE TO VESSEL GROUNDED IN THE WATERS AREA OF CILIK ISLAND, KARIMUNJAWA SUBDISTRICT, JEPARA REGENCY, CENTRAL JAVA PROVINCE

The purpose of this research is to conduct a claim of compensation claim for damage to the coral reef ecosystem as a vessel grounded in the waters of Cilik island, Karimunjawa Subdistrict, Jepara Regency, Central Java Province. The research method of this study conducted using survey and case of study. The analyses used by this study was economic valuation of ecosystem services loss, cost of coral reef restoration and cost of verification and dispute resolution. The result of this study showed that the total claim of compensation amounted IDR 3,067,031,155.96 (USD 227,466.52) for compensating the area of coral reef damage 111.69 square meters, i.e. IDR 635,525,318.46 for losing of coral reef ecosystem services, IDR 2,181,505,837.50 for cost of coral reef restoration, and IDR 250,000,000.00 for verification and dispute resettlement cost. This claim of compensation delivered as an effort to force the responsibility of the vessel owner and to restore the area of coral reef damage in the future.

Impact of risk perception on household willingness-to-pay to restock the threatened staghorn coral

This study aims to examine whether individuals' attitudes toward the anthropogenic risks facing staghorn corals and coral reef ecosystems off the Southeast (SE) coast of Florida influence their valuation of coral reef ecosystem services and willingness to mitigate risks. We use preference data and psychometric measures characterizing the public's attitudes toward risk elicited through a stated preference survey and integrate them into alternative econometric valuation models to estimate willingness-to-pay (WTP) to restock and protect the threatened staghorn coral off the SE coast of Florida. The household WTP estimates for the restocking program, marine reserve and combined programs were $179.01, $96.60 and $275.61, respectively. Respondent WTP was strongly dependent on respondents' perception of the anthropogenic risks facing staghorn corals and coral reef ecosystems. Adjusting WTP for risk perception resulted in an average increase of 98% in perceived benefits from unadjusted WTP for the three hypothetical management programs examined. Factors found not to influence WTP include preference elicitation method, use of, and distance to, the resource in question. Coral reef management agencies may want to consider people's attitudes toward risk when designing their public education and engagement programs in support of coral reef restoration.

Mapping long-term coral reef ecosystems regime shifts: A small island developing state case study.

Coral reefs are among the most fragile ecosystems that provide essential services to local Small Island Developing States (SIDS) communities. As such, exploring the characteristics and interactions shaping regime shifts of coral reefs is of paramount importance in managing system pressures; enhancing resilience; aiding their regeneration and recovery process; and restoring habitat complexity. However, understanding the dynamics of coral reef ecosystems regime shift requires employing an approach capable of dealing with systems being affected by multiple climatic and socio-economic non-climatic pressures as well as an effective treatment of systemic embedded uncertainties. This study applies Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping (FCM) in a participatory stepwise and systematic procedure to reflect dynamic casualties and temporal changes of coral reef ecosystem regime change over a long-time perspective. This mapping technique allows conceptualising dynamic models to represent causalities and modelling input values to simulate fluctuations within a complex temporal system. Port Resolution on Tanna Island in Vanuatu was selected as the case study region representative of Pacific-SIDS geography and human communities. As an initial outcome and an indicator of multidisciplinary of this study, twenty-seven principal influential factors and their corresponding causal relationships were identified. Subsequently, the coral reef regime shift was analysed under four main plausible scenarios representing major climatic and non-climatic trajectories. The results indicate that climate change factors play pivotal roles in the regime shift of the coral reef ecosystem globally. At the focal scale of this study, the tourism industry and coral fisheries are the most vulnerable services provided by coral reefs. As such, coupled local management interventions and global efforts in mitigating the adverse impacts of climate change is likely to yield better coral reef ecosystem services at a local community level.

Changes in the potential stocks of coral reef ecosystem services following coral bleaching in Sekisei Lagoon, southern Japan: implications for the future under global warming

Climate change is projected to have large impacts on natural capital and ecosystem services under scenarios of the IPCC. In the summer of 2016, elevated seawater temperatures triggered mass coral bleaching in Sekisei Lagoon, southern Japan. Based on data from field surveys and relevant websites, we mapped potential stocks of four major ecosystem services (fisheries production, aquarium fish production, recreational diving, and seaweed control) supplied by coral reef fishes before and after the bleaching event and predicted the possible future state of socio-ecological systems in the lagoon under climate change. We also evaluated whether current management options had mitigated the negative effects of extreme heating and coral bleaching on the potential stocks. Before the coral bleaching, the potential stock of recreational diving was estimated as 41.44 billion Japanese yen per year for the entire lagoon, while those of fisheries and aquarium fish productions were 2.10 billion and 15.03 billion yen, respectively. After bleaching, the four potential stocks including seaweed control decreased. The marine park zone and the extermination area of crown of thorns starfish mitigated changes in fish species richness and the value of recreational diving following coral bleaching. Extreme heating and coral bleaching are considered to be representative of a possible future state under global warming, and the results suggest that even management for local disturbances can mitigate the interactive effect of climate change on the potential stocks. Additional integrative management accounting for climate change and local stressors would be necessary for protecting ecosystem services in Sekisei Lagoon.

Lesson learned on coral reef ecosystem services valuation damage due to vessel grounded in Indonesia

Vessel grounded on coral reef ecosystem still one of the most significant damage by the incident to corals ecosystem services. Many cases had been handled, but not all of them are completely solved. The settled cases showed the willingness of the vessel owners to paid the claimed environmental loss. This research paper is aimed to compare cases of a vessel grounded during the year 2017 and 2018. This paper concluded the summary of all the works of experts hired by the Directorate General of Law Enforcement on corals ecosystem; ecosystem services valuation, and national regulation. The final calculation shows a varied amount of value claimed, due to the quality of corals before damages, its location and its technical approaches. The calculation of the claimed cost was based on the principles of ecosystem services valuation approaches which includes provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting services. From all cases, the value of coral ecosystem per squares meter per year of corals damage ranges from IDR 0.12 to 0.83 million. This value was related significantly with the year damaged coral, the quality of the coral ecosystem before damaged, and the distance from the nearest coastline.

An introduction to Bayesian networks as assessment and decision support tools for managing coral reef ecosystem services

Quantifying ecosystem goods and services can help evaluate policies aimed at protecting present and future generations from losing ecosystem benefits. Explicating and quantifying the relationships among risk factors, ecological structure and function, and delivery of ecosystem goods and services requires analytical methodologies that propagate uncertainties. The capabilities of Bayesian networks in generating predictions and accounting for uncertainty are explored with a focus on coral reef ecosystem service assessments. The qualitative aspects of Bayesian networks can be applied to conceptual frameworks developed for coral reef ecosystem service assessments. This is demonstrated using qualitative graphs that describe the relationships between coral reef condition endpoints and benefits from ecosystem services including property protection, recreational opportunities, fish for fisheries, and biochemical metabolites for commercial products developed from reef organisms. Bayesian networks help weigh uncertainties between management decision impacts on stressors and the corresponding delivery of ecosystem services. Quantitative capabilities for inferences are examined in hypothetical scenarios evaluating how decisions affect coral reef ecosystem services and economic benefits and resilience to episodic stress. The described methods facilitate visualizing the potential impacts on ecosystem services from alternative scenarios.

Coral reef ecosystem services in the Anthropocene

Abstract Coral reefs underpin a range of ecosystem goods and services that contribute to the well‐being of millions of people. However, tropical coral reefs in the Anthropocene are likely to be functionally different from reefs in the past. In this perspective piece, we ask, what does the Anthropocene mean for the provision of ecosystem services from coral reefs? First, we provide examples of the provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting services underpinned by coral reef ecosystems. We conclude that coral reef ecosystem service research has lagged behind multidisciplinary advances in broader ecosystem services science, such as an explicit recognition that interactions between social and ecological systems underpin ecosystem services. Second, drawing on tools from functional ecology, we outline how these social–ecological relationships can be incorporated into a mechanistic understanding of service provision and how this might be used to anticipate future changes in coral reef ecosystem services. Finally, we explore the emergence of novel reef ecosystem services, for example from tropicalized coastlines, or through changing technological connections to coral reefs. Indeed, when services are conceived as coming from social–ecological system dynamics, novelty in services can emerge from elements of the interactions between people and the ecosystem. This synthesis of the coral reef ecosystem services literature suggests the field is poorly prepared to understand the changing service provision anticipated in the Anthropocene. A new research agenda is needed that better connects reef functional ecology to ecosystem service provision. This research agenda should embrace more holistic approaches to ecosystem service research, recognizing them as co‐produced by ecosystems and society. Importantly, the likelihood of novel ecosystem service configurations requires further conceptualization and empirical assessment. As with current ecosystem services, the loss or gain of services will not affect all people equally and must be understood in the context in which they occur. With the uncertainty surrounding the future of coral reefs in the Anthropocene, research exploring how the benefits to people change will be of great importance. A plain language summary is available for this article.

Managing Local Stressors for Coral Reef Condition and Ecosystem Services Delivery Under Climate Scenarios.

Coral reefs provide numerous ecosystem goods and services, but are threatened by multiple environmental and anthropogenic stressors. To identify management scenarios that will reverse or mitigate ecosystem degradation, managers can benefit from tools that can quantify projected changes in ecosystem services due to alternative management options. We used a spatially-explicit biophysical ecosystem model to evaluate socio-ecological trade-offs of land-based vs. marine-based management scenarios, and local-scale vs. global-scale stressors and their cumulative impacts. To increase the relevance of understanding ecological change for the public and decision-makers, we used four ecological production functions to translate the model outputs into the ecosystem services: “State of the Reef,” “Trophic Integrity,” “Fisheries Production,” and “Fisheries Landings.” For a case study of Maui Nui, Hawai’i, land-based management attenuated coral cover decline whereas fisheries management promoted higher total fish biomass. Placement of no-take marine protected areas (MPAs) across 30% of coral reef areas led to a reversal of the historical decline in predatory fish biomass, although this outcome depended on the spatial arrangement of MPAs. Coral cover declined less severely under strict sediment mitigation scenarios. However, the benefits of these local management scenarios were largely lost when accounting for climate-related impacts. Climate-related stressors indirectly increased herbivore biomass due to the shift from corals to algae and, hence, greater food availability. The two ecosystem services related to fish biomass increased under climate-related stressors but “Trophic Integrity” of the reef declined, indicating a less resilient reef. “State of the Reef” improved most and “Trophic Integrity” declined least under an optimistic global warming scenario and strict local management. This work provides insight into the relative influence of land-based vs. marine-based management and local vs. global stressors as drivers of changes in ecosystem dynamics while quantifying the tradeoffs between conservation- and extraction-oriented ecosystem services.